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Nesbitt, Sterling J; Sues, Hans-Dieter (2021). "The osteology of the early-diverging dinosaur Daemonosaurus chauliodus (Archosauria: Dinosauria) from the Coelophysis Quarry (Triassic: Rhaetian) of New Mexico and its relationships to other early dinosaurs". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 191 (1): 150–179. doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa080. Sereno, Paul C.; Wilson, Jeffrey A.; Witmer, Lawrence M.; etal. (2007). Kemp, Tom (ed.). "Structural Extremes in a Cretaceous Dinosaur". PLOS ONE. San Francisco, CA: PLOS. 2 (11): e1230. Bibcode: 2007PLoSO...2.1230S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0001230. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2077925. PMID 18030355. When laying eggs, females grow a special type of bone between the hard outer bone and the marrow of their limbs. This medullary bone, which is rich in calcium, is used to make eggshells. A discovery of features in a Tyrannosaurus skeleton provided evidence of medullary bone in extinct dinosaurs and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a fossil dinosaur specimen. Further research has found medullary bone in the carnosaur Allosaurus and the ornithopod Tenontosaurus. Because the line of dinosaurs that includes Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus diverged from the line that led to Tenontosaurus very early in the evolution of dinosaurs, this suggests that the production of medullary tissue is a general characteristic of all dinosaurs. [190] Fossil interpreted as a nesting oviraptorid Citipati at the American Museum of Natural History. Smaller fossil far right showing inside one of the eggs. Matthew G. Baron; Megan E. Williams (2018). "A re-evaluation of the enigmatic dinosauriform Caseosaurus crosbyensis from the Late Triassic of Texas, USA and its implications for early dinosaur evolution". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 63. doi: 10.4202/app.00372.2017. a b Tennant, Jonathan P.; Chiarenza, Alfio Alessandro; Baron, Matthew (February 19, 2018). "How has our knowledge of dinosaur diversity through geologic time changed through research history?". PeerJ. 6: e4417. doi: 10.7717/peerj.4417. PMC 5822849. PMID 29479504.

Müller, Rodrigo Temp; Garcia, Maurício Silva (August 26, 2020). "A paraphyletic 'Silesauridae' as an alternative hypothesis for the initial radiation of ornithischian dinosaurs". Biology Letters. 16 (8): 20200417. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2020.0417. PMC 7480155. PMID 32842895. Paul, Gregory S., ed. (2000). The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs (1sted.). New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-26226-6. LCCN 2001269051. OCLC 45256074. Bertazzo, S.; Maidment, S.C.R.; Kallepitis, C.; etal. (2015). "Fibres and cellular structures preserved in 75-million-year-old dinosaur specimens". Nature Communications. 6: 7352. Bibcode: 2015NatCo...6.7352B. doi: 10.1038/ncomms8352. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 4468865. PMID 26056764. Ornithopoda (various sizes; bipeds and quadrupeds; evolved a method of chewing using skull flexibility and numerous teeth) a b c Taylor, M.P. (2010). "Sauropod dinosaur research: a historical review". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 343 (1): 361–386. Bibcode: 2010GSLSP.343..361T. doi: 10.1144/SP343.22. S2CID 910635.Research by Matthew G. Baron, David B. Norman, and Paul M. Barrett in 2017 suggested a radical revision of dinosaurian systematics. Phylogenetic analysis by Baron et al. recovered the Ornithischia as being closer to the Theropoda than the Sauropodomorpha, as opposed to the traditional union of theropods with sauropodomorphs. This would cause sauropods and kin to fall outside traditional dinosaurs, so they re-defined Dinosauria as the last common ancestor of Triceratops horridus, Passer domesticus and Diplodocus carnegii, and all of its descendants, to ensure that sauropods and kin remain included as dinosaurs. They also resurrected the clade Ornithoscelida to refer to the group containing Ornithischia and Theropoda. [15] [16] General description Triceratops skeleton, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County

Organ, C.L.; Schweitzer, M.H.; Zheng, W.; Freimark, L.M.; Cantley, L.C.; Asara, J.M. (2008). "Molecular Phylogenetics of Mastodon and Tyrannosaurus rex". Science. 320 (5875): 499. Bibcode: 2008Sci...320..499O. doi: 10.1126/science.1154284. PMID 18436782. S2CID 24971064. Norell, Mark; Gaffney, Eugene S.; Dingus, Lowell (2000) [Originally published as Discovering Dinosaurs in the American Museum of Natural History. New York: Knopf, 1995]. Discovering Dinosaurs: Evolution, Extinction, and the Lessons of Prehistory (Reviseded.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22501-5. LCCN 99053335. OCLC 977125867 . Retrieved October 30, 2019.Prasad, Vandana; Strömberg, Caroline A. E.; Alimohammadian, Habib; etal. (2005). "Dinosaur Coprolites and the Early Evolution of Grasses and Grazers". Science. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science. 310 (5751): 1170–1180. Bibcode: 2005Sci...310.1177P. doi: 10.1126/science.1118806. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 16293759. S2CID 1816461. Holland, William J. (May 1910). "A Review of Some Recent Criticisms of the Restorations of Sauropod Dinosaurs Existing in the Museums of the United States, with Special Reference to that of Diplodocus Carnegiei in the Carnegie Museum". The American Naturalist. American Society of Naturalists. 44 (521): 259–283. doi: 10.1086/279138. ISSN 0003-0147. S2CID 84424110 . Retrieved October 18, 2019.

Using one of the above definitions, dinosaurs can be generally described as archosaurs with hind limbs held erect beneath the body. [17] Other prehistoric animals, including pterosaurs, mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and Dimetrodon, while often popularly conceived of as dinosaurs, are not taxonomically classified as dinosaurs. [18] Pterosaurs are distantly related to dinosaurs, being members of the clade Ornithodira. The other groups mentioned are, like dinosaurs and pterosaurs, members of Sauropsida (the reptile and bird clade), except Dimetrodon (which is a synapsid). None of them had the erect hind limb posture characteristic of true dinosaurs. [19] Sulej, Tomasz; Niedźwiedzki, Grzegorz (2019). "An elephant-sized Late Triassic synapsid with erect limbs". Science. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science. 363 (6422): 78–80. Bibcode: 2019Sci...363...78S. doi: 10.1126/science.aal4853. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 30467179. S2CID 53716186. Prior to the dinosaur renaissance, dinosaurs were mostly classified using the traditional rank-based system of Linnaean taxonomy. The renaissance was also accompanied by the increasingly widespread application of cladistics, a more objective method of classification based on ancestry and shared traits, which has proved tremendously useful in the study of dinosaur systematics and evolution. Cladistic analysis, among other techniques, helps to compensate for an often incomplete and fragmentary fossil record. [69] [70] Reference books summarizing the state of dinosaur research, such as David B. Weishampel and colleagues' The Dinosauria, made knowledge more accessible [71] and spurred further interest in dinosaur research. The release of the first and second editions of The Dinosauria in 1990 and 2004, and of a review paper by Paul Sereno in 1998, were accompanied by increases in the number of published phylogenetic trees for dinosaurs. [72] Soft tissue and molecular preservation An Edmontosaurus specimen's skin impressions found in 1999 Langer, Max C.; Ferigolo, Jorge (January 1, 2013). "The Late Triassic dinosauromorph Sacisaurus agudoensis (Caturrita Formation; Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil): anatomy and affinities". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 379 (1): 353–392. Bibcode: 2013GSLSP.379..353L. doi: 10.1144/SP379.16. ISSN 0305-8719. S2CID 131414332. World War II caused a pause in palaeontological research; after the war, research attention was also diverted increasingly to fossil mammals rather than dinosaurs, which were seen as sluggish and cold-blooded. [60] [61] At the end of the 1960s, however, the field of dinosaur research experienced a surge in activity that remains ongoing. [62] Several seminal studies led to this activity. First, John Ostrom discovered the bird-like dromaeosaurid theropod Deinonychus and described it in 1969. Its anatomy indicated that it was an active predator that was likely warm-blooded, in marked contrast to the then-prevailing image of dinosaurs. [60] Concurrently, Robert T. Bakker published a series of studies that likewise argued for active lifestyles in dinosaurs based on anatomical and ecological evidence (see §Physiology), [63] [64] which were subsequently summarized in his 1986 book The Dinosaur Heresies. [65] Paleontologist Robert T. Bakker with a mounted skeleton of a tyrannosaurid ( Gorgosaurus libratus)Langer, Max C.; Abdala, Fernando; Richter, Martha; Benton, Michael J. (1999). "Un dinosaure sauropodomorphe dans le Trias supérieur (Carnien) du Sud du Brésil" [A sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Upper Triassic (Carman) of southern Brazil]. Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série IIA. Amsterdam: Elsevier on behalf of the French Academy of Sciences. 329 (7): 511–517. Bibcode: 1999CRASE.329..511L. doi: 10.1016/S1251-8050(00)80025-7. ISSN 1251-8050. Sternberg, Charles Mortram (1966) [Original edition published by E. Cloutier, printer to the King, 1946]. Canadian Dinosaurs. Geological Series. Vol.54 (2nded.). Ottawa: National Museum of Canada. LCCN gs46000214. OCLC 1032865683. Dyke & Kaiser 2011, chpt. 14: "Bird Evolution Across the K–Pg Boundary and the Basal Neornithine Diversification" by Bent E. K. Lindow. doi: 10.1002/9781119990475.ch14 Lessem, Don; Glut, Donald F. (1993). The Dinosaur Society's Dinosaur Encyclopedia. Illustrations by Tracy Lee Ford; scientific advisors, Peter Dodson, et al. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-41770-5. LCCN 94117716. OCLC 30361459 . Retrieved October 30, 2019. By contrast, ornithischians—"bird-hipped", from the Greek ornitheios (ὀρνίθειος) meaning "of a bird" and ischion (ἰσχίον) meaning "hip joint"—had a pelvis that superficially resembled a bird's pelvis: the pubic bone was oriented caudally (rear-pointing). Unlike birds, the ornithischian pubis also usually had an additional forward-pointing process. Ornithischia includes a variety of species that were primarily herbivores.

Hansell, Mike (2000). Bird Nests and Construction Behaviour. Pen and ink illustration by Raith Overhill. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46038-5. LCCN 99087681. OCLC 876286627 . Retrieved October 30, 2019. Paul, Gregory S. (2002). Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of Flight in Dinosaurs and Birds. Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6763-7. LCCN 2001000242. OCLC 1088130487. .

Recommended Resources

a b c "The Birth of Dinosaurs: Richard Owen and Dinosauria". Biodiversity Heritage Library. October 16, 2015 . Retrieved March 15, 2023. Hadrosauriformes (ancestrally had a thumb spike; large quadrupedal herbivores, with teeth merged into dental batteries) Concave articular surface for the fibula of the calcaneum (the top surface of the calcaneum, where it touches the fibula, has a hollow profile) Glut, Donald F. (1997). Dinosaurs: The Encyclopedia. Foreword by Michael K. Brett-Surman. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-89950-917-4. LCCN 95047668. OCLC 33665881.